(a)OR(b)

"Print culture created the favourable conditions for the French Revolution." Explain the statement with examples.

(i) Print popularised the ideas of the Enlightenment thinkers. They argued for the rule of reason rather than custom, and demanded that everything be judged through the application of reason and rationality.

(ii) They attacked the sacred authority of the Church and the despotic power of the state. The writings of Voltaire and Rousseau were read widely.

(iii) Print created a new culture of dialogue and debate. All values, norms and institutions were re- evaluated and discussed by a public that had become aware of the power of reason, and recognised the need to question existing ideas and beliefs. Within this public culture, new ideas of social revolution came into being.

(iv) By the 1780s there was literature that mocked the royalty and criticised their morality. They raised questions about the existing social order.

(v) Cartoons and caricatures mocked the king and showed how the common people suffered immense hardships. This literature circulated underground and led to the growth of hostile sentiments against the monarchy.

(b) “Throughout the nineteenth century, there were a series of innovations in printing technology.” Explain the statement with examples.

(i) Through the nineteenth century, there were a series of innovations in printing technology that increased the quality and quantity of printing.

(ii) By the mid-nineteenth century, Richard M. Hoe of New York had perfected the power-driven cylindrical press. This was capable of printing $\displaystyle 8,000$ sheets per hour.

(iii) In the late nineteenth century, the offset press was developed which could print up to six colours at a time.

(iv) From the turn of the twentieth century, electrically operated presses accelerated printing operations. Methods of feeding paper improved, the quality of

(v) plates became better, automatic paper reels and photoelectric controls of the colour register were introduced. The accumulation individual mechanical improvements transformed the appearance of printed texts.