(a) Examine the social, political and economic aspects of liberalism in the early nineteenth century Europe.

(i) The term ‘liberalism’ is derived from the Latin root liber, meaning free.

(ii) Ideas of national unity in early nineteenth century Europe were allied to the ideology of liberalism.

(iii) For the new middle-class liberalism stood for freedom for the individual and equality of all before the law. Politically, it emphasized the concept of government

(iv) by consent.

(v) Since the French Revolution, liberalism had stood for the end of autocracy and clerical privileges, a constitution and representative government through parliament. Social Aspect

(vi) Equality before law did not necessarily stand for universal suffrage. In France, for instance the right to vote and to be elected was granted exclusively to property-owning men.

(vii) Men without property and all women were excluded from political rights. Only for a brief period under the Jacobins did all adult males enjoy suffrage.

(viii) However, the Napoleonic Code went back to limited suffrage and reduced women to the status of a minor, subject to the authority of fathers and husbands. Economic Aspect

(ix) In the economic sphere, liberalism stood for the freedom of markets and the abolition of state-imposed restrictions on the movement of goods and capital.

(x) Nineteenth century liberals also stressed the inviolability of private property.

(xi) The Prussian government created a unified economic union or the ‘Zollverein’ to promote the unhindered movement of goods and capital across the $\displaystyle 39$ states of the German confederation.

(b) Examine the extent to which conservatism shaped European politics following Napoleon’s defeat in 1815.

(i) Following the defeat of Napoleon in $\displaystyle 1815$, European governments were driven by a spirit of conservatism.

(ii) Conservatives believed that traditional institutions of state and society – like the monarchy, the Church, social hierarchies, property and the family –should be preserved.

(iii) The objective of the Treaty of Vienna ($\displaystyle 1815$) was to undo most of the changes introduced by Napoleon Bonaparte.

(iv) The Bourbon dynasty, which had been deposed during the French Revolution, was restored to power, and France lost the territories it had annexed under Napoleon.

(v) A series of states were set up on the boundaries of France to prevent French expansion in future. Thus, the kingdom of the Netherlands, which included Belgium, was set up in the north and Genoa was added to Piedmont in the south.

(vi) Prussia was given important new territories on its western frontiers, while Austria was given control of northern Italy.

(vii) The German confederation of $\displaystyle 39$ states that had been set up by Napoleon was left untouched.

(viii) In the east, Russia was given part of Poland while Prussia was given a portion of Saxony.

(ix) Conservative regimes set up in $\displaystyle 1815$ were autocratic. They did not tolerate criticism and dissent, and sought to curb activities that questioned the legitimacy of autocratic governments.

(x) Most of them imposed censorship laws to control what was said in newspapers, books, plays and songs and reflected the ideas of liberty and freedom associated with the French Revolution.