(a) Examine the nationalist tensions emerged in the Balkan region by the end of nineteenth century.

(i) The Balkans was a region of geographical and ethnic variation comprising modern-day Romania, Bulgaria, Albania, Greece etc whose inhabitants were broadly known as the Slavs.

(ii) A large part of the Balkans was under the control of the Ottoman Empire.

(iii) The spread of the ideas of romantic nationalism in the Balkans together with the disintegration of the Ottoman Empire made this region very explosive.

(iv) One by one, its European subject nationalities broke away from its control and declared independence.

(v) The Balkan people based their claims for independence or political rights on nationality and used history to prove that they had once been independent but had subsequently been subjugated by foreign powers.

(vi) As the different Slavic nationalities struggled to define their identity and independence, the Balkan area became an area of intense conflict.

(vii) The Balkan states were fiercely jealous of each other and each hoped to gain more territory at the expense of the others.

(viii) Matters were further complicated because the Balkans also became the scene of big power rivalry.

(ix) During this period, there was intense rivalry among the European powers over trade and colonies as well as naval and military might.

(x) These rivalries were very evident in the way the Balkan problem unfolded. Each power – Russia, Germany, England, Austro-Hungary was keen on countering the hold of other powers over the Balkans, and extending its own control over the area. This led to many wars and finally led to the First World War.

(b) Examine the role of Giuseppe Mazzini in the unification of Italy during the nineteenth century.

(i) Giuseppe Mazzini was born in Genoa in 1805. He became a member of the secret society of the Carbonari. He was sent into exile for attempting a revolution in Liguria.

(ii) During the 1830s, Giuseppe Mazzini had sought to put together a coherent programme for a unitary Italian republic.

(iii) Mazzini believed that God had intended nations to be the natural units of mankind. So, Italy could not continue to be a patchwork of small states and kingdoms.

(iv) It had to be forged into a single unified republic within a wider alliance of nations.

(v) He argued that the unification of Italy alone could be the basis of Italian liberty.

(vi) He formed secret societies, like Young Italy in Marseilles and Young Europe in Berne for the dissemination of his ideas and goals.

(vii) He saw the creation of nation states as a necessary step to attain liberty and freedom.

(viii) Mazzini’s relentless opposition to monarchy and his vision of democratic republics frightened the conservatives, who were opposed to the unification of Italy.

(ix) His ideas and tactics inspired other revolutionaries of Italy and the Italian unification became a reality.