(a) Describe the various measures that French revolutionaries introduced to create a sense of collective identity among the French people.

(i) The ideas of la patrie (the fatherland) and le citoyen (the citizen) emphasized the notion of a united community enjoying equal rights under a constitution.

(ii) A new French flag, the tricolour, was chosen to replace the former royal standard.

(iii) The Estates General was elected by the body of active citizens and renamed the National Assembly.

(iv) New hymns were composed, oaths taken and martyrs commemorated, all in the name of the nation.

(v) A centralised administrative system was put in place and it formulated uniform laws for all citizens within its territory.

(vi) Internal customs duties and dues were abolished and a uniform system of weights and measures was adopted.

(vii) Regional dialects were discouraged and French, as it was spoken and written in Paris, became the common language of the nation

OR 7.(b) Describe the role of Giuseppe Mazzini in the Italian unification.

(i) Giuseppe Mazzini who was born in Genoa in $\displaystyle 1805$, became a member of the secret society of the Carbonari.

(ii) As a young man of $\displaystyle 24$, he was sent into exile in $\displaystyle 1831$ for attempting a revolution in Liguria.

(iii) He founded two underground societies, first, Young Italy in Marseilles, and then, Young Europe in Berne, whose members were like-minded young men from Poland, France, Italy and the German states.

(iv) Mazzini believed that God had intended nations to be the natural units of mankind.

(v) Italy could not continue to be a patchwork of small states and kingdoms. It had to be forged into a single unified republic within a wider alliance of nations.

(vi) This unification alone could be the basis of Italian liberty.

(vii) Secret societies were set up in Germany, France, Switzerland and Poland following his model.

(viii) Mazzini’s relentless opposition to monarchy and his vision of democratic republics frightened the conservatives. Metternich described him as the most dangerous enemy of their social order.